The march of the peoples is always toward the West,
wherefore, the earth being round, in time
the West must be East again. ―　Amy Lowell

INTRODUCTION

Over the snowdrifts
over white mountain and hill
the wind leaves no tracks. /Marjorie B. Smith

Haiku is a short poetic form which Japanese have practised for centuries, and which, literally, millions of Japanese are writing today. In the last ten years or so it has become popular in America. First hundreds, then thousands, now many tens of thousands of Americans are writing haiku - or at least trying to. Among Americans we find foreign haiku writers: Puerto Rican and South Indian. Some of them are writing in their native language and others in English, etc.

Fall ranges beyond...
and here for our mountain breath
the ease of heather. /J. W. Hackett

Ein bewoelkter Tag ―　
　　statt der Sonne leuchte heut
Kirschenblueten mir. /Alvine Dreher

Entre ses vingt fards
elle cherche un pot plein:
devenu pierre. /Rainer Maria Rilke

El bosque duerme
en el suave sonido
de su silencio. /Maria　Luisa　Munoz

　In this way haiku - and attempts at haiku - are now being written by many races outside Japan. In the beginning haiku was introduced to America through the translation of classical Japanese haiku. An aesthetician, Earnest Francisco Fenollosa brought them to Boston where the Imagist Movement was occurring. And he asked Ezra Pound who was one of the Imagists to read and publish them. Pound and Amy Lowell read the manuscripts of the translations, and one dropped the attempt of 'hokku like sentence'.

The apparition of these faces in a crowd;
Petals on a wet, black bough.

And the other one really practised original English haiku in 'Twenty-Four Hokku on a Modern Theme'. The 'Modern Theme' is unquitted love .

This then is morning.
Have you no comfort me,
Cold-coloured flowers?

I will refer to the form of these English haiku, and their mind as much as possible. So this study is devided into two parts.

[Part I]　Haiku in English

[Part II]　English in Haiku

PART I：HAIKU IN ENGLISH

§I　The Imagists

　 " I should say that the influence of haiku on the Imagists was much more considerable than almost anyone has suspected. It helped them make their poems short, conise, full of derect feeling for nature." ―　John　Gould　Fletcher

We　know the notable role of the Imagists to American poetry. When the translations of Japanese haiku were brought to America by Fenollosa or the German and French translations were read, haiku was attempted in English by the Imagists and their contemporaries - or at least influenced on their technique, along-side of Japanese art and other Japanese literature.
To make Japanese haiku live in their tradition Ezra Pound played an important part. In his crucial period from 1912-1914 he discovered the famous tecchnique, 'a form of super-position', in Japanese poems such as 'Fallen Blossaom' by Moritake (1472-1549).

The apparition of these faces in a crowd;
Petals on a wet, black bough.

(The fallen blossoms flies back to its branch: a butterfly.)

After this discovery he made this technique more flexible and adapted to his well-known poems which have more than two lines such as 'April', 'Gentildonna', 'Alba', 'The Bath-Tub', 'A Song of Degree', etc. This supple technique became principal part pf his 'Cantos' as the more common use of it.

did we ever get to the end of Doughty:
The Dawn in Britain?
perhaps not
(Summons withdrawn, sir)
(bein' aliens in prohibited area)
clouds lift their small mountains
before the elder hills
―　Canto　LXXXIII

A form of super-position is used in these lines ' clouds lift their small mountains / before the elder hills' which are focused in one vivid and sudden image. Haiku, also, has especially entered into his theory of imagery. Here for our purpose it must be said that Pound establishehd haiku as short poems chatacterized by delicacy, natural imagery, and the super-pository technique.
His technique was borrowed by the Imagists ― F. S. Flint, Hilda Doolittle(H.D.)，Richard Aldington，Amy Lowell，John Gould Fletcher， and so on. The following Aldington's front lines of 'Living Sepulchres' shows the fact that in what state of mind and of what spirit he wrote haiku.

One frosty night when the guns were still
I leaned against the trench
Making for myself hokku
Of the moon and flowers and of the snow.

Amy Lowell who stood for another set of standards of the Movement wrote 17 syllable poems in 'twenty-Four Hokku on a Modern Theme' and 'The Anniversary'. But in 'The Anniversary' the haiku form is used as stanzaic unit in a narrative poems with no other connection with Japan. In 'Twenty-Four Hokku' her familiarity with Japanese art from her childhood appears.

Watching the iris,
The faint and fragile petals ―
How am I worthy?

She has endeavored only to keep the brevity and suggestion of the hokku, and to preserve it within its natural sphere. In her 'Nuance', 'Autumn Haze' or 'Peace' our haiku masters' poems echo.

Even the iris bends
When a butterfly lights on it.

(The first snowfall
Is just enough to bend
The jonquil leaves.)

But for these American poets the very technique of imitation of Japanese haiku had to be rationalized in philosophical poems on the meaning of the contact East and West. In this concern John Gould Fletcher attempted at Buddhist transcendentalism in many such passage as this one from 'White Symphony'.

The pines groan, white-laden,
The waves shiver, struck by the wind;
Beyond from treeless horizons,
Broken snow-peaks crawl to the sea.

He also wrote the poem by borrowing the situation of Buson's 'Spring Rain' in 'Irradiations VII'.

Flickering of incessant rain
On flashing pavements:
Sudden scurry of umbrellas:
Bending, recurved blossoms of the storm.

(Through the spring rains
An umbrella and raincoat hasten,
Chatteing together.)

He sees three meanings in haiku: a state of fact, an emotion deduced from that, and a sort of spiritual allegory. Concernig the spirit and the technique of haiku there is a worthy noting fact seen between Pound and Fletcher, that is, Fletcher frowned upon Pound when he said "Good hokku cannat be written in English." Pound made much of technique and Fletcher of spirit of haiku. The chief relevance of haiku for English poetry is expressed in Fletcher's exhortation: "Let us universalize our emotion as much as possible, let us become as impersonal as Shakespeare or Basho was.
Again, the technique of super-position was employed by Conrad Aiken, Wallace Stevens, Robert Frost, Archibald MacLeish, and so on. And in about the years 1940-1953 the contemporaries of the Imagists were sending their haiku to newspapers and other publications. But in the long run for these American poets haiku was only means of their poems to flow in the current of the great tradition ― Occidental and Oriental.

§　II　Modern Haiku

First, I present the following analysis of English haiku of the present time with a particular emphasis on how they do, or perhaps should differ from Japanese haiku. And then I proceed to 'What is a haiku for English-speaking people? ’The analysis is based on the external characteristics of a classical Japanese haiku: as a general rule a classical Japanese haiku consists of 17 syllables (5-7-5), contains at least some reference to nature (other than human nature), refers to a particular event (i.e. it is not a generalization), and presents that event as happening now ―　not in the past.
Since the Second World War Japanology in America has been developing, and Japanese traditional poetry comes to be worth while to notice again. Now many tens of thousands of Americans are attracted by the simplest form rather than exotic interest which was one of the subjects of the Imagists. They see two larger meanings in haiku: it has deep emotion within its own concern, and it is the simplest. Haiku by these Americans constantly appear in the newspapers, school and college publications, little magazines, etc. One publication (HAIKU WEST) is published from 'non-view' and offers the whole space to the poets to seek a possible final form of English language haiku. And volumes of haiku by individual poets are beginning to appear. In north America another publicatioon (HAIKU) devotes to many races' haiku in the world. All these are encouraging signs, but it is nevertheless true that "haiku in English" is still in its infancy. This was stated by Harold G. Henderson in the year 1965. Now many haiku writers are more concerned with the spirit of haiku which was attempted by the Imagists with no great succes. In brief it is the question 'What is a haiku for English-speaking people?' They are now concerned with universal feelings, starting their lands which are different from other lands. An American endeavors to express particular America, not symbolized America, and a Canadian claims non-identity of his land with U.S.A. People are watching the inside.

Bleak and weary night.
arms bent against foul monsters...
a faint chirp, dawn's light. /Claire Pratt

§　III　Syllables

When haiku were first being written in English, it was natural for poets to think that English haiku, too, should consists of 17 syllables, arranged in the same pattern of Japanese haiku. But the strict Japanese syllable count is simply inapplicable to English. Japanese 'ji-on' ―　usually translated as syllable is an unit of time. 17 Japanese syllables carry the same weight of 12-15 English syllables. And there is an offering of English haiku form as an ideal solution in such as the book 'History of Haiku' (vol,II): "The ideal, that is, the occasinally attainable haiku form in English, would perhaps be three short lines, the second a little longer than the other two; a two-three-two rhythm, but not regularly iambic or anapaestic: rhyme avoided, even if felicitous and accidental." But poets would not agree with this proposal and are writing their haiku. As for syllables some idea of what English haiku writers are now doing can be got by considering haiku in 'HAIKU WEST'.

Pattern Syllables　　　　　A　　　　B　　　　C　　　　D
a) 5-7-5 (17)　　　　　　　83　　　　93　　　78　　　　85　　　339
b) 5-6-5 (16)　　　　　　　　5　　　　8　　　 15　　　　 6　　　 34
c) 5-7-4 (16)　　　　　　　　3　　　　2　　　　3　　　　7　　　　15
d) 5-7-6 (18)　　　　　　　　7　　　　2　　　　3　　　　0　　　　12
e) 5-6-4 (15)　　　　　　　　3　　　　0　　　　0　　　　0　　　　3
f) 4-7-5 (16)　　　　　　　　3　　　　0　　　　6　　　　9　　　　18
g) the others　　　　　　　33　　　　29　　　　21　　　29　　　112
Number of pattern　　　　27　　　　27　　　　25　　　25
Total of the poems　　　　137　　　134　　　126　　　136　　　533

(syllablle count: according to 'An Outline of English Phonetics' by Daniel Jones pp.55-60)
A:vol.I no.1; B:vol.I no.2; C:vol.II no.1; D:vol.II no.2

It may be safely said that most writers of haiku today use a 5-7-5 syllable count and write with its strict form or with the less syllables. This does not directly set forth the fact that writers restric themselves within a 5-7-5 form. For the more consideration the question of translation is presented. The famous Basho's poem 'Old Pond' is illustrated.

a) Furu-ike ya Old pond:
Kawazu tobi-komu Frog jump-in
Mizu-no-oto Water-sound

b)Into the old pond 5 syllables
Suddenly jumps a green frog 7
And a splash is heard 5

The translation (b) has extra words which do not appear in the original poem, and it is too pad and too stuff. Translation of haiku should not be interpretation of the poem. If an English poet would express the same spirit of Basho's 'Olf Pond', he must use the less syllables. This occurred for the reason that the beauty of haiku consists of only the form and vice versa of the spirit ― the spirit has already evolved the form and the form has already evolved the spirit.

The grasshopper springs, 5 syllables
and catches the summer wind 7
with his outstretched wings. 5

A tipsy scarecrow 5 syllables
drunk on the warm scent of corn 7
leaning crazily. 5

These poems are applied to the 5-7-5 form and express one condensed image. The first poem means nothingness and it describes the unfolded, reposeful mind of the poet with reserve. The second poem is born by the shake of the poet who is carefully looking at the things in this morbid world. By this shake the poet makes the things and the words unite and sees the origin of the scarecrow or of corn fields. To apply the 5-7-5 form the words are often omitted although imagery is never cut. The 5-7-5 form can be applied to any state of mind. And the variation of the 5-7-5 form in English haiku seems to be a stage to a settled form unlike that of Japanese haiku which is liable to be employed the more syllables.

Kare-eda ni On a withered branch 5 syllables
Karasu no tomari keri a crow has settled... 9
Aki no kure autumn nightfall. 5

The cardinal 5-7-5 form can be elastic or flexible in characteristic mind, sustaining the rhythm of a poem. And this form is, at the present point, also basic beauty of haiku in English. The tendency of syllables of haiku shows the approach toward the same beauty of Japan, the beauty of simplicity; although the shape is altered. The Japanese descend the 5-7-5 rhythm from our ancestors and it has become our body's rhythm. While for the Americans the 5-7-5 form is rather required to approach toward the Japanese spirit.

§IV　Rhyme

The second question of form has to do with rhyme which appears in traditional English verse, but rhyming words are, by comparison, not so many in English. There is no rhyme in Japanese haiku, and hardly there could be. In this century American authors made various experiments in literature. As the result of the Imagist Movement it is remembered that vers libre or free verse was reborn as the spirit of the united intelligence and heart. The Imagists were influenced by Greek melic poets in this point of view.
Most English haiku are not rhymed. At the present time the consensus seems to be against it, though we find some rhymed poems which are effectively expressed theuir close inward,

Brown mimosa seed
where blossoms once invited
hummingbirds to feed.

On the weathered shelf
a self-cleaned cat in autumn
curls around itself.

The repetition of the same sound gives a reader some pleasuable sensation and satisfied some expectation. In these illustrations the use of rhyme is appropriate. But it is not always so, because the use of it tends to close a poem and because haikku is open. The only question of rhyme in English haiku is now whether rhyme should be appropriate or not. In order to live from century to century haiku should be open to people and its spirit and form should be united before haiku becomes haiku for haiku sake.

§V　Cutting　Words

The third question of form in which haiku written in English cannot possibly follow their classical Japanese prototype is the use of conventional cutting words. But American poets do not seem to bother by having no exact equivalent to cutting words. They use punctuation marks such as a colon (:) for the word 'ya' or a row of dots (...) for the word 'kana' to express the adequate feelings to them, but no always so.

Loneliness: for the
child, an opportunity
to play Let's Pretend.

This rainy morning:
daffodils -- and three children
in yellow slickers.

The image is caught as the background and the foreground as in Basho's 'Old Pond' and 'Autumn Nightfall'. This technique was found out in the pooems of the Imagists. These poems, however, are written with mind more harmonized with nature and readers by matching the image to a certain direction. Therefore they demand a reader to experience the poet's feelings in their comradeship. Cutting words, in a certain sense, is poet's voice calling to nature and a reader.

Come! see how fresh snow
has silenced every edge
of this moonlit night.

Haiku stands on the common basis between a poet and a reader.
Some American poets seems to prefer to write without using those punctuation marks. Of course, period can be used if desired.

The first little snow.
an evening of light edges
the roses dropped their leaves.

These English haiku are like objets of imagery or speech with musical sequence not with metronome sequence. And they are the more prosaic on account of their shortness and requiring strict images.

§VI　Season Words

Nature, or some aspect of nature, is an integral part of classical Japanese haiku. So it is for most American haiku. But the problem of seasons and season words has up to the present been too much neglected by the poets who wish to write haiku in English. The Imagists believed natural objects as proper and perfect symbols in their poems, but they gave no thought to this problem. These facts do not always prove that nature has gone out from America ,or that the Americans slowly feel nature in their blood. When America was still immersed in freedom of Independence the Americans had such works 'The Adventures of Tom Sawyer' or 'The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn' in their literature. Tom and Huckleberry could be satisfied and comfortable to keep steps with a circle of nature.

It was the cool gray dawn, and there was delicious sense of repose and peace in the deep
pervading calm and silence of the woods. Not a leaf stirred; not a sound obstruded upon
the Great Nature's meditation. Beaded dewdrops stood upon the leaves and grasses. A white
ashes covered the fire, and a thin blue breath of smoke rose straight into air.
(Chap:XIV The Adventures of Tom Sawyer)

In this passage we read Tom who is soaked into nature filled with communion. And also we see Huckleberry who feels the coolness and passing time in the woods of the Mississippi.

The sun was up so high when I wake, that I judged it was after eight o'clock. I laid
there in the grass and the cool shade, thinking about things and feeeling rested and
rather comfortabel and satisfied. I could see the sun out at one or two holes, but mostly
it was big trees all about, and gloomy in there amongst them. There was freckled places
on the ground where the light sifted down through the leaves, and freckled places swapped
about a little, showing there was a little breeze up there. A couple of squirrels set
on a limb and jarrbered me very friendly.
(Chap:VIII The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn)

This kind of coolness may be experienced under a linden. And these Americans who are soaked into nature are always toward outside, and are ready to hear such a word of Basho: "About the pine, learn the pine; about the bamboo, learn the bamboo." Their open heart (ex-sistere ) might feel noble loneliness of human beings which would be felt by the Japanese. Even now most American haiku suggest the seasonal emotion in the whole tone of them.

Each fugitive wave
flings free, sprawls, sighs, - is sucked back
to a restless grave.

Any American feels bleak November in this poem. Furthermore he feels the time of the day, the nightfall or the night. In another poem seasonal emotion is needed, saying, spring which means the growing time, not as an interpretation of the poem but as an example of the effect that proponents of season words claim.

The attic -
a dusty tricycle.
My child has children of his own.

In English haiku season words are unsettled. But they, or this poem is different from senryu in the attitude toward nature. Season words, in Japanese haiku, are the most purified emotion for the natural objects and human affairs. They bear people's history as their deep flow, and they render poems not waver.

In every barren tree
hang wonders of frosty web
for the Christmas sun!

The Christmas sun is the particular sun of the poet, not the general sun, but every body can experince this sun of the poet as their Christmas symbol. Another poem has the possible season word which might be settled.

A brown, tinseled trees
standing beside garbage cans,
in a melting world.

'Melting world' is the symbol of the land where snow is melting on the trees and rooftops in the sun. It never means the world where iron or asphalt is melting. The shortness of haiku largely depends upon the nature's poetic or religious truth, so this judgement is really made. Of course the imagination of the poet makes a poem lively.

On the jack-oak trees
shiny buds are pushing off
last brown, withered leaves.

Season words in English haiku are yet unsettled, but the American poets who wish to write haiku are beginning to bend down to nature and to stare their land. Their eyes are seeing inward, asking the Oriental spirit.

§VII Happening Now

Haiku presents an event as happening now which is felt in a high moment.

On journey, ill -
over the withered fields, a dream
go wandering still.

This lovely farewell poem of Basho was told to his pupils when the mornig was come to his ill bed. His life which is symbolized in journey is ending. This highest moment is focused into a dream, and the dream goes wandering in the time of past, present, and future. In this point time is still and the lucid, f\profooound world of the poem is filled with communion. Such experience of a poet is expressed to some extent in English haiku as the experience of the now.

Night sky and black fog,
alone upon the rock cliffs;
gone is the North Star.

In this poem the poet became the North Star which is fire of her soul and disappeared in the moment of clear darkness. We realized the poet's life. Some poet receive the light of the opening world.

The stillness of dawn ...
yet the leaves of lofty trees
reveals its presence.

The poet also realized his presence by the reflection of the lofty trees, and at the same time he understands the very meaning of 'reveal'. The world where the light is sifting down from heaven is the very opeen world. There is nothingness and is filling communion of universe. There is only the breath of freedom.

Over the snowdrifts
over white mountain and hill
the wind leaves no tracks.

Fall ranges beyond ...
and here for our mountain breath
the ease of heather.

The world of these poems has nothing. Only the innocent, clear and cool soul lives. This world is around us. This world is our eternal native heath where we were born in our beginnings.

Eternity --
is a world so brief, it isn't:
blooming bougainvillea.

Now that the spirit lives in the Orient where the new is the old, we must go farther.

We must be still and still moving
Into another intensity
For a further union, a deeper communion.